The Importance of Forecasting on Sales Management Decision Making

The Importance of Forecasting on Sales Management Decision Making Presentation as of late, the business condition has progressively gotten increasingly erratic. This has made it significant for associations over the globe to become careful with regards to the issue of estimating. Truth be told, for any association to be fruitful in today’s business world, its strategies for foreseeing the future in the key regions of its principle business must be improved ceaselessly. Else, it faces the danger of getting outdated. Guaging is along these lines, a device to be profoundly valued by the businesspersons of this century.Advertising We will compose a custom research paper test on The Importance of Forecasting on Sales Management Decision Making explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More Forecasting is hence the way toward assessing or foreseeing the future result of various business angles by utilization of verifiable information. These business perspectives incorporate; deals, income, piece of the pie, benefits, costs and some more. E stimating is framed from two words, â€Å"fore†: Al Etisal conveyance co. is one of the well known food and buyer merchandise Distribution Company in Baghdad. They have a more extensive scope of items. Ruler frozen yogurt is one of their items that they begin selling since 2009. Deals have a consistent development and its seasons significantly affect the frozen yogurt deals. The executives anticipates that all out deals for 2012 should be 3200.Advertising Searching for research project on business financial matters? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Find out More Value frozen yogurt deals unit the board is required to set their figure for 2012. They should locate the most ideal path in evaluating the interest for the dessert. The following are the chronicled deals information for Prince dessert throughout the previous three years The above model is profoundly influenced via seasons and in this manner the business figures need to consolidate the seasons in their plan. It is additionally a case of a quantitative issue. Along these lines, time arrangement is material in this issue explicitly pattern projection and by utilization of an irregularity record (Agee,258). Month Sales by Case 2009 Sales by Case 2010 Sales by Case 2011 normal deal for the three years normal month to month request occasional file deals forecasts2012 Jan 30 33 42 35 186 0.188 50 Feb 28 32 49 36 186 0.196 52 Mar 35 47 55 46 186 0.246 66 Apr 55 67 90 71 186 0.380 101 May 194 180 209 194 186 1.046 279 Jun 290 280 376 315 186 1.698 453 Jul 459 504 703 555 186 2.990 797 Aug 35 0 490 543 461 186 2.482 662 Sep 189 227 290 235 186 1.267 338 Oct 76 142 188 135 186 0.729 194 Nov 62 109 97 89 186 0.481 128 Dec 42 56 68 55 186 0.298 79 complete normal deals 2229 absolute expected sales= 3200 Average month to month deals = all out normal deals/12 months= 2229/12 =186 Seasonal file = normal 3 years deals/normal month to month deals Causal models These models utilize the utilization relapse models to figure deals. They think of a rundown of factors that have impact on the deals of the item being referred to and through relapse; they plot the different prospects and in this way concoct dependable conjectures. Subjective models Delphi strategy utilizes the perspectives on different experts or specialists in the field who investigate the circumstance and give their expert perspectives. Typically, the gathering of specialists incorporates; key chiefs, staff, and the respondents. The staff and respondents give help dependent on their subject matters to the chiefs, who t hus think of the gauges. Jury of official techniques utilizes the assessments of a jury comprised of significant level supervisors and key leaders to make estimates. The gathering may anyway get support from other specialized experts who give foundation data to aid dynamic. Other subjective strategies incorporate; deals power composite and customer advertise study. The last uses purchaser feelings while the previous utilizes the assessments of the salespersons to think of deals gauges (Pinney,56). End In synopsis, deals anticipating is a significant fixing to accomplishment in the current and future business world. In this way, the board needs to put accentuation on it to receive the rewards attached to the use of these apparatuses. The board needs to continue improving their way to deal with this procedure to stay pertinent. Agee, Marvin H. Quantitative Analysis for Management Decisions. London: Prentice Hall, 2001. Anderson, David R and Dennis Sweeny. Quantitative Methods for Busi ness. Chicago: South-Western College, 2009. Hiller, Fredrick S and Mark S Hiller. Prologue to Management Science: A Modeling and Case Studies Approach with Spreadsheets. London: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2010. Pinney, William E. The board Science: An Introduction to Quantitative Analysis for Management. Toronto: Harpercollins College , 2000. Render, Barry, Ralph M Stair and Michael E Hanna. Quantitative Analysis for Management. London: Prentice Hall, 2011. Taylor, Bernard R. Prologue to Management Science. London: Prentice Hall, 2009.

Jupiter Moons Essay Example For Students

Jupiter Moons Essay Jupiter, the biggest of the Jovian planets, rules all through the solarsystem. Named after the Roman god Jove, the leader of Olympus; Jupiter isthe fifth planet from the sun and is additionally the biggest planet in the Earthssolar framework. It is multiple times moremassive than Earth and is 66% of theplanetary mass in the close planetary system. Jupiters surface, in contrast to earth, is gaseousand not a strong. It is about 90% hydrogen and 10% helium with hints of methane,ammonia, water and rock. Jupiters inside is fundamentally the same as the Sunsinterior yet with a far lower temperature.(Columbia) However, it is stillunknown for certain, yet Jupiter is accepted to have a center of fluid metallichydrogen. This extraordinary component must be accomplished at a weight more prominent than 4million bars. Jupiter transmits more vitality in space than it gets from thesun. Jupiters circle lies past the space rock belt at a mean separation ofc.483 million mi (773 million km) from the su n; its time of unrest is11.86 years. (Seeds) In request from the sun it is the first of the Jovianplanets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune), enormous, monstrous planets ofrelatively low thickness, having fast pivot and a thick, obscure air. Jupiter has a width of 88,679 mi (142,800 km), in excess of multiple times thatof the earth. Its mass is multiple times that of the earth and around 2 1/2 times themass of allother planets joined. (Columbia) An estimation of thediameter of Jupiter decided the planets polar straightening. The smoothing ofJupiter was uncovered by Pioneer to be somewhat more noteworthy than that determined fromthe best Earth-based estimations. The breadth of the planet was measuredat a weight of 800 mbar close to the cloud beat (a bar is generally equivalent to thepressure of 1 atm of Earth). Its polar breadth is 133,540 km (82,980 miles) andits tropical distance across is142, 796 kilometers (88,732 miles). (Seeds)These values were set up by the planning of the occultation of the spacecraftby Jupiter. In this way, Jupiter is almost multiple times more swelled than Earth,principally on account of its non-strong state and its higher pace of revolution. Theaverage thickness of Jupiter, determined from its mass and volume, was confirmedas 1.33 gm/cm^3 (the thickness of water is 1). The climate of Jupiter iscomposed for the most part of hydrogen, helium, methane, and smelling salts. It shows up theatmosphere is partitioned into various light and dull groups corresponding to itsequator and shows a scope of complex highlights, including a continuous tempest calledthe Great Red Spot, situated in its southern half of the globe and estimating 16,150 milong by 8,700 mi wide (26,000 by 14,000 km). (Columbia) This Great RedSpot is as yet present in Jupiters air, over 300 years after the fact. It isnow realized that it is an immense tempest, turning like a twister. Dissimilar to a low-pressure storm in the Caribbean Sea, nonetheless, the Red Spot turns in acounterclockwise course in the southern side of the equator, demonstrating that it is ahigh-pressure framework. Winds inside this Jovian tempest arrive at rates of about270 mph. The Red Spot is the biggest known tempest in the Solar System. W ith adiameter of 15,400 miles, it is double the size of the whole Earth andone-6th the width of Jupiter itself. (Fimmel) The Great Red Spot wasfirst recognized by Robert Hooke in 1664. Jupiter has no strong stone surface. Onetheory pictures a steady change from the external smelling salts mists to a thicklayer of solidified gases lastly to a fluid or strong hydrogen mantle. The Spot and different markings of the climate additionally give proof forJupiters quick revolution, which has a time of around 9 hr 55 min. This rotationcauses a polar straightening of over 6%. (Columbia) The temperature ofJupiter ranges from about - 190? F (- 124?C) for the noticeable surface of theatmosphere, to 9? F (- 13? C) at lower cloud levels; confined locales reach ashigh as 40? F (4? C) at still lower cloud levels close to the equator. Jupiterradiates around four fold the amount of warmth vitality as it gets from the sun,suggesting an inward warmth source. This vitality is believed to be expected partially toa moderate compression of the planet. Jupiter is additionally portrayed by intensenon-warm radio discharge; in the 15-m go it is the most grounded radio sourcein the sky. Jupiter has a straightforward ring framework that is made out of an internal halo,a fundamental ring and a Gossamer ring. To the Voyager rocket, the Gossamer ringappeared to be a solitary ring, yet Ga lileo symbolism gave the unexpecteddiscovery that Gossamer is extremely two rings. One ring is inserted inside theother. The rings are shaky and are made out of residue particles kicked upas interplanetary meteoroids crush into Jupiters four little internal moons Metis,Adrastea, Thebe, and Amalthea. A large number of the particles are infinitesimal in size. The deepest corona ring is toroidal fit as a fiddle and expands radially fromabout 92,000 kilometers (57,000 miles) to around 122,500 kilometers (76,000miles) from Jupiters focus. It is shaped as fine particles of residue from themain rings internal limit blossom outward as they fall toward the planet.(A Role Of Airplanes In World War II EssayIt circles Jupiter each 7.2 days a good ways off of 1.1 million km/700,000 mi. Its surface is a blend of cratered and scored landscape. Molecularoxygen was recognized on Ganymedes surface in 1994 (Ganymede;Helicon). The space test Galileo recognized an attractive field around Ganymede in 1996;this recommends it might have a liquid center. (Hamilton). Galileo photographedGanymede a good ways off of 7,448 km/4,628 mi. The subsequent pictures were 17 timesclearer than those taken by Voyager 2 out of 1979, and demonstrate the surface to beextensively cratered and furrowed, presumably because of powers like thosethat make mountains on Earth. Galileo likewise recognized atoms containingboth carbon and nitrogen on a superficial level March 1997. Their essence may indicatethat Ganymede harbored life eventually (Hamilton). Callisto is theeighth of Jupiters known satellites and the second biggest. It is the outermostof the Galilean moons and was found by Galileo and Marius in 1610. UnlikeGanymede, Callisto appears to have minimal inside structure; However, there aresigns from ongoing Galileo information that the inside materials have settledpartially, with the level of rock expanding toward the middle. Ca llistois about 40% ice and 60% stone/iron (Callisto;Helicon). Callistos surfaceis secured totally with cavities. The surface is exceptionally old, similar to the good countries ofthe Moon and Mars. Callisto has the most established, most cratered surface of anyone yet saw in the nearby planetary group; having experienced little change other thanthe infrequent effect for 4 billion years (Callisto;Helicon). Thelargest holes are encircled by a progression of concentric rings that look likehuge splits yet which have been streamlined by ages of sluggish development of theice. The biggest of these has been named Valhalla (right). 4000 km in diameter,Valhalla is an emotional case of a multi-ring bowl, the consequence of a massiveimpact (Callisto;Helicon). As far as the mass of Earths Moon,the masses of the Galilean satellites arranged by good ways from Jupiter werefound to be: Io, 1.21; Europa, 0.65; Ganymede, 2.02; and Callisto, 1.46. Themass of Io was 23% more noteworthy than that assess ed before the Pioneer odyssey. Thedensity of the satellites diminishes with expanding good ways from Jupiter andwas refined because of Pioneers perceptions. Ios thickness is 3.52;Europas, 3.28; Ganymedes, 1.95; and Callistos, 1.63 gm/cm^3. The outersatellites, in light of their low thickness, could comprise to a great extent of water andice. Every one of the four satellites were found to have normal sunlight surfacetemperatures of around 140 C (- 220 F) (Columbia). A second gathering iscomprised of the four deepest satellitesMetis, Adrastea, Amalthea, and Thebe. Found by E. E. Barnard in 1892, Amalthea has an oval shape and is 168 mi(270 km) long. Metis and Adrastea circle near Jupiters slight ring system;material launched out from these moons keeps up the ring. The last groupconsists of the eight outstanding satellites, none bigger than c.110 mi (180 km)in distance across. Four of the external eight satellites situated from 14 million to16 million mi from Jupiter (22 million-26 million km), have retrograde motion,i.e., movement inverse to that of the planets pivot. The other four havedirect circles. It is theorized that every one of the eight may be caught asteroids(Seeds). At the point when it is in the evening sky, Jupiter is frequently the brighteststar in the sky (it is second just to Venus, which is only here and there visiblein a dull sky). The four Galilean moons are effectively noticeable with optics; afew groups and the Great Red Spot can be seen with a little astronomicaltelescope. Jupiter is step by step easing back down because of the tidal drag producedby the Galilean satellites. In what capacity will this impact it and its moons? We currentlyknow that the equivalent tidal powers that are easing back Jupiter down are changing theorbits of the moons, gradually constraining them more distant from Jupiter. Asadditional information is accumulated and innovation empowers another fronitier, just thenwill we know the destiny of Jupiter. Up to that point we can simply guess its finallife as a Jovian planet. BibliographyBibliography The Columbia Encyclopedia, Fifth Edition. Copyright ?1993,Columbia University Press. Authorized from Lernout ; Hauspie Speech ProductsUSA, Inc. Pioneer: First to Jupiter, Saturn, and Beyond: Chapter 6A Results AtThe New Frontier; Fimmel, Richard O.; Van Allen, James; Burgess, Eric;09-01-1990 Ganymede; ( The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science ) ; 01-01-1998,Helicon Publishing Ltd. 1998. Io ; ( The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science ) ;01-01-1998, Helicon Publishing Ltd. 1998. Callisto; ( The Hutchinson Dictionaryof Science ) ; 01-01-1998, Helicon Publishing Ltd. 1998. Europa; ( TheHutchinson Dictionary of Science ) ; 01-01-1998, Helicon Publishing Ltd. 1998. Seeds, Michael A., Foundations of Astronomy; copyright 1994, Wadsworth Inc. Copyright ? 1997-1999 by Calvin J. Hamilton. Copyright ?

Startup Hubs Around the World Bangkok

Startup Hubs Around the World Bangkok The world is changing quickly. Even in a city that has roots in the earliest parts of history, the inevitable change is beginning. Internet-linked computers and smart phones have created a world that is shrinking more and more â€" connecting the world’s population through e-commerce, education, social media and the commonality of entrepreneurship. There are qualities that transcend culture and language â€" one of the most elementary is the desire to create something new.An entrepreneur is described as one who ventures out on their own into the workplace, and who creates a new way of doing things. While everyone likes to imagine that they are unique in the world, there is a sense of unity in the idea that no matter the language, people are always looking for something new to discover and create. The start-up market in Bangkok is an example of the way entrepreneurs can create and develop new processes â€" despite language and cultural barriers. Drawn to the city from all over the wor ld, developers are beginning to work together to imagine a new tomorrow and then finding a way to make it a reality. © Shutterstock.com | Travel maniaIn this article about Bangkok, we look at  six essential elements  of a potential start-up location  that must be considered: 1)  location, 2)  tax incentives, 3)  legal incentives, 4)  availability of investors, 5)  local resources and workforce, and 6)  specialization.1. LOCATIONDespite the century old age of the city, Bangkok is just a few short years into its beginning as a start-up market.   Southeast Asia’s second largest city leads Thailand as the center of every major industry.   One would expect that a city that is not only known for their hospitality and tourist friendly city, recently, Bangkok was voted the second ‘Best Business City in Southeast Asia’. This multi-faceted city is poised to establish itself as a leader within the start-up community in the next few years.Home to the nation of Thailand’s largest financial institutions and major commercial banking centers, it is also the headquarters to the country’s largest companie s. There are a large number of multinational corporations that have established locations in Bangkok â€" fifteen of which are listed on the Forbes 2000.As a tourist attraction, the appeal of Bangkok can be found in diverse sights. Cultural and historical locations abound with temples, royal palaces and museums.   As a center of modernization and wealth, Bangkok is the primary means of entry into the nation of Thailand. Because of the great influx of tourists that the city receives on an annual basis, there is a constant state of change.   In addition, the city benefits from the constant introduction of new technologies and ideas. The city’s tech infrastructure is booming â€" nearly 75 percent of the population is internet users. With smart phones becoming more prevalent, Thailand reports nearly mobile subscribers of over 80 million â€" a number that exceeds its population.With a strong infrastructure, Bangkok has vibrant sea ports that benefit manufacturers, as well as importers a nd exporters. The seven large international airports can handle up to 100 million passengers annually, giving investors and entrepreneurs easy access to the world. Mass transit systems provide in-country transportation options, and an easily navigable road system allows for pedestrian traffic as well as automobile use.2. TAX INCENTIVESEstablishing the benefits for companies to launch in Bangkok, Thailand has created tax incentives that help entrepreneurs do business. Thailand has low corporate income tax rates â€" from 10% to 30% and is based on specific criteria. A criterion that changes a company’s tax rate varies from corporate status, companies that are listed on Thailand’s stock exchange and profit levels. The companies can enjoy exemption from corporate income tax for up to eight years â€" enough time for the start-up to become established as a company.Additional tax incentives can include reduced import duties for machinery that is brought into the city for use in the bus iness; a reduction in taxes on raw components and material used to develop new machines and technology. As a further incentive, the company can take a deduction to help offset costs of infrastructure.A company that wishes to bring in foreign nationals to work must seek permission from the Board of Investments (BOI).   The BOI can give the company permission to bring a foreigner in to work under exacting specifications such as their availability to work on the study of investment feasibility. They can grant the foreigner permission to own property for the sake of the business.Despite the many tax incentives offered by Bangkok officials, it is advisable for anyone wishing to do business in the city to seek the advice of a tax professional. The tax code is complex can require additional paperwork and filings that the average person may not be able to understand. By finding a Thai national who specializes in start-up business tax, the entrepreneur can be sure that they are taking advant age of every available tax credit.3. LEGAL INCENTIVESAs the government begins to realize the potential for a tech industry growth explosion, they are establishing incentives and benefits for entrepreneurs. Thailand’s Board of Investment has been working to create opportunities for businesses. They have begun to establish ownership allowances for investors that give foreigners the opportunity to own 100% of a company begun in Bangkok. Further, they have given foreigners the right to own land to build their business on â€" an opportunity not always afforded to entrepreneurs. Work visas and permits are expedited for expatriates, making it easier to take advantage of the city’s many benefits.The BOI has also established protocol that safeguards companies from competition. They protect against competition in the marketplace by state businesses, giving the start-up the opportunity to secure a spot in the public eye. To further bolster their claim, they have put a ban on the monopoliza tion of products, set up controls against price controlling and grant companies permission to export their products.Encouraged by the many benefits that Bangkok offers entrepreneurs, the legal system of the city is catching up as fast as possible. Specialized legal counsel offices that are experts in the field of start-up and tech companies should be consulted before beginning any work in Bangkok.   While thriving, there are still bureaucracy problems that plague a new company trying to establish itself. Many companies incorporate in other countries, such as Singapore, while setting up headquarters in Bangkok. By handling the legal portions of the company in a country that can back up the legalities, the company (and the owners) are protected.4. AVAILABILITY OF INVESTORSThe recent establishment of firms that specialize in venture capital, as well as angel groups will help the market grow within the city.   With few investors, start-ups will struggle to solicit funding within the Tha iland landscape. Bangkok is a city of wealth, and there are potential investors within the city. One drawback to finding an investor in Bangkok, however, is that a majority of the individuals with the wealth are leery of tech investment. A strong history in real estate, manufacturing and other traditional investment opportunities has generated wealth for people who now find it difficult to imagine investing in the unknown.It makes sense, then, that a majority of funding for the Bangkok markets comes from Japan and the United States, while Singapore, Beijing, and Hong Kong draw most of the available Asian backers. Helping to encourage American investors, the United States has established a treaty with Thailand that has bolstered the Bangkok market, while benefiting American investors and entrepreneurs who wish to operate in Bangkok.Through the treaty, US investors can obtain a business license to operate in Thailand in a very short amount of time.   To benefit from this treaty, compa ny ownership must be a majority of American ownership, or at least a majority of American.   There must be an initial investment of at least $100,000, and certain industries are excluded from participation.As the start-up market within the city grows and as more companies begin to reach success, investors will be drawn to the new tech industries.   Like other tech hubs, Bangkok will be looking for their first big exit to help launch them as serious player on the world’s start-up stage.   Investors, after all, are looking to make money.   When a company becomes successful, it draws attention to the other start-ups that are taking place in the area. This growth â€" investor â€" growth cycle has a proven track record: as a company gains success, they attract more potential investors. For an investment opportunity rich city such as Bangkok, it means that competition will be fierce for the first few funders.5. AVAILABILITY OF LOCAL RESOURCES AND WORKFORCEBangkok is rich with resources that are essential to a start-up hub. A bustling, global economy is located within a city that is bursting with resources. To begin with, living in Bangkok is affordable for almost every entrepreneur; coming in at 51% less than living in the United States. With super cheap housing, low utilities costs and an abundance of street food, markets and restaurants, the living on a budget entrepreneur can maintain a standard of living that surpasses the lifestyle found in many other countries.Combined with the reasonable cost of living, Bangkok is home to a tech-savvy, well-educated generation that is ready to change the way Thailand interacts with the world. The extremely talented workforce is drawing attention â€" giving Disney, Pixar and LucasArts all reason to establish studios within the city. They are not proficient in the latest technology advances, but they are quickly catching up with the rest of the world. Hidden within the traditional city is a wealth of talent that is waiting to be discovered.Working to train the talent are the universities located in the city. With a partnership that is years old, the universities have established relationships with the largest companies in Bangkok. The companies helped design the curriculum for the universities â€" based on the skills they needed their employees to have. The new tech industries will require a new calibration of the skills being taught, but the framework for training students to succeed in the market’s needed skills is already in place.Collaboration and work zones are beginning to spring up in the city, creating spaces where the entrepreneur can design and build. With the establishment of start-up weekends, camps and Mobile Mondays, tech start-ups are beginning to explode within the city. In addition, the co-working spaces that are starting to open give entrepreneurs a way to connect with other, find freelancers and use inexpensive workspace as they get their company off the ground.6. SPECIALIZATIONThe entrepreneur market in Bangkok is strong.   A majority (over 80%) of adults who are not currently an entrepreneurial role in Bangkok expressed an interest in future development of a new business. Of the total adult population, over 20% are currently engaged in a form of entrepreneurship. With a climate poised for individuals to take on the role of business owner, one would expect start-ups to explode all over the city. However, the majority of the entrepreneurship roles in the city of Bangkok are in traditional business markets. Beginning a thriving tech start-up industry will require money and training that is slowly being established in Bangkok. At this point, there isn’t a stand-out industry that could be designated as a start-up industry. With a wide open marketplace, the possibilities are endless for the development of the industry that will put Bangkok on the map for more than their tourist attractions.Want to know which start-ups to keep an eye on? Check out these promising companies coming out of Bangkok.Builk. A social network geared towards the construction industry, Builk connects suppliers, companies and engineers. As a country’s fledgling tech market takes off, they are focusing on one of the most concrete industries in the city.Ookbee.   An e-book platform, they have extended their reach into the countries of Malaysia, Singapore and Vietnam. Ookbee owns 90 percent of the city’s market share and is continuing to expand and extend their network.Penta.   A development of The Catalyst Group, Penta is working to create a platform that works in the cloud with healthcare solutions, Smart TVs, VoiP and more. By offering Bangkok a development structure that holds future applications, they are working to improve the possible future of Bangkok’s tech industry.

Faith Seeking Understanding - 1021 Words

Faith Seeking Understanding - St. Anselm The most striking theme in Anselms Proslogion, or faith seeking understanding, is the idea that in order to prove Gods existence one must first have faith in Him, and only then will one be able to truly understand and appreciate Gods existence. Anselm argues for this eloquently, I do not seek to understand that I may believe, but I believe in order to understand. For this also I believe, that unless I believed, I should not understand (Ch.1 Proslogion). Let us now investigate what Anselm means by this, what led him to his line of reasoning, why we should believe him that this is the right way of going about proving Gods existence, and finally, raise some serious objections against his†¦show more content†¦Absolutely not. As mentioned in the opening of this paper, what is striking most about faith seeking understanding is the fundamental assumption it makes, but more importantly, the implications and unique perspective the follow f rom it. Anselms thesis changes the way we view the relationship between reason and faith. Just as an effect always follows a cause, we are liable to think that faith always follows reason. But the relationship between faith and reason, Anselm implicitly argues, does not necessarily have to abide by this one-way directional line of thinking. In fact, is it not the case that most philosophers and people in general start out with an intuition about something, and then try to work backwards and see if they can justify it? Anselm is simply doing what most of us already do, but in his case he is being intellectually honest and brave by explicitly stating such an approach, especially when it comes to a sensitive and important topic like the existence of God. Faith, Anselm wants to argue, is the principle driving force and origin upon reason is founded upon. Reason is simply a tool, that is, a means to an end, to understanding Gods existence and infinite grace. 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Public Perception On Police Profiling Essay - 1699 Words

The presidential election of Barak Obama has led many to believe that we live in a post-racial society. If an African-American candidate has been elected in a predominantly white nation, this must signify that the U.S. does not have barriers that hinder African-Americans and other people of color from accessing opportunities or that we live in a color-blind society – in which race is not an issue. However, public perception on police profiling and the fairness of our justice system, public support for Donald Trump’s discriminatory ideologies, and racist actions by fraternities at universities illustrate the prevalence and continuity of racism in the U.S. Thus, to address the way in which racism plagues our society, it is important for political leaders and the media to educate believers of a color-blind society that racial discrimination is an issue which needs to properly be addressed for the well-being of all member of society. Both public perception on police racial profiling and the fairness of our justice system reveal that race continues to play a role in our society. The shootings of unarmed African-American men Michael Brown and Erica Garder are incidents that highlight the racial divide in public opinion on racial profiling by police officers, and its court rulings. A survey conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2014 revealed the following after respondents were asked whether the grand jury’s decision to not charge Darren Wilson for the death of Michael Brown wasShow MoreRelatedMinority Attitudes Towards the Police and Public Perceptions Essay1179 Words   |  5 PagesLiterature Review: Minority attitudes towards the police and public perceptions Introduction-Background-Problem Individuals who seem to be more unhappy with police are African Americans. But there is little to no factors that truly engage citizens view of the police Brown and Benedict (2002). The specific parts on attitudes are reliable, but the literature seems to lead to mixed signals based on other variables Weitzer and Tuch (2002). Perceptions of the police includes factors like personal experienceRead More Profiling and Police/Community Relations Essay1435 Words   |  6 Pages Scientific Methods Scientifically, profiling and police-community relations are comprised of a two-fold focus. The first focal point concentrates on attitudes members of a community have about profiling in accordance to actions conducted by police officers upon them in the course of their duties. The second focal point concentrates on the profiling of police officers, as completed by early intervention systems, in an effort to reduce complaints from members of the community. The literatureRead MorePublic Opinion of Police by Different Ethnic Groups Essay1136 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿ Public Opinion of Police by Different Ethnic Groups XXXXXXXXX CJA 344 March 24, 2014 Benjamin Harm Public Opinion of Police by Different Ethnic Groups Introduction Cooperation from members of the public is important in order for police officers to effectively fight crime within the community. In order to obtain cooperation from members of the public, police officers must gain their trust and confidence. It has been known that African Americans and Hispanics have lower levelsRead MoreRacial Profiling1430 Words   |  6 Pagestwenty years the issue of racial profiling has become extremely combative with regards to law enforcement practices. A common misconception begins as some people are unaware of what racial profiling actually is. Racial profiling typically deals with incarceration, miss education, and to certain extent slavery. The topic of slavery is relevant in the conversation of racial profiling because like slavery, African Americans have suffered just due their own identity. Profiling is essentially the selectionRead MoreEssay on Criminal Profiling1253 Words   |  6 PagesCriminal profiling is one of few first things to think of w hen it comes to forensic psychology. Criminal profiling is featured in popular television shows such as in Law and Order and CSI. Often in those shows, the police officers were able to catch the criminals based on the criminal profile that forensic psychologists came up with. In a theory, the polices rely on criminal profiling to catch criminals, educate the public about a possible criminal, and confirm the witnesses’ accounts. CriminalRead MoreThe Effects Of Police Brutality On The Relationship1243 Words   |  5 Pages Bad Blood: The Effects of Police Brutality on the Relationship Between Minorities and the Police Brandon Seigle June 16, 2017 CRJS 498 NC AT University ..................Column Break..................As children we are taught that not only are police officers our friends, but that their job is to protect and serve our communities. Unfortunately, for many minorities this image is shattered as incident after incident occurs in the streets of their communities. With today’s technology, theseRead MoreRacial Profiling Against African Americans1614 Words   |  7 PagesIs Racial Profiling Justified Racial Profiling Against African Americans Racial profiling is simply, â€Å"the unlawful police practice of using race, color, or ethnic background, as the reason for conducting a traffic stop on an individual.† (Michigan Civil Rights Commission) This definition can be extended to any kind of discrimination mainly based on myths and stereotypes towards a certain race or ethnicity. However, the term racial profiling is commonly used when a police officer or anyRead MoreThe Problem Of Local Police868 Words   |  4 PagesDescription of the Problem Local police are being overly co-opt by federal law enforcement agencies. They are directing too many resources toward protecting the nation’s borders and other federal duties. It is a belief held by some that local police are becoming too militaristic in nature by using military-style weapons, tactics, training, uniforms, and heavy equipment. This notion makes local police no longer a benefit for the community. A number of attacks on American soil have demonstrated thisRead MoreRacial Profiling And Its Impact On Society1310 Words   |  6 Pagesclassified into many subcategories, one of which is racial profiling. This issue, where authorities target certain individuals based on their racial characteristics, has never ceased. According to many influential claimsmakers, racial profiling has stained the United States by negatively affecting society and disturbing the certainty of justice. It is unconstitutional and leads to impactful consequences such as deaths, fear, and loss of trust in police officers, demoralization, and dehumanization of stigmatizedRead MoreLiterature Review On Racial Profiiling1391 Words   |  6 PagesThis essay reviews the literature on racial profiling in Courtelaney Pass. Racial profiling is a policing method that has increasingly become scrutinized over the years in Courtelaney Pass. An overwhelming number of individuals in the city are subject to racial profiling. Contrary to 55% white, 38% black, and 7% Hispanic, the blacks and out of town travelers passing through receive 87% of the speeding tickets. In addition, racial profiling can occur to women and men, all age groups are used against

Bronze Age Mesopotamia Leadership Free Essays

The Epic of Gilgamesh Bronze Age Mesopotamia had a distinct culture and tradition; their rich cultural heritage was passed down by some incredible fictitious and non-fictitious writings like the ‘Epic of Gilgamesh’. There are many inferences that can be made about Bronze Age Mesopotamia by reading the ‘Epic of Gilgamesh’. It’s clear from this document that the dichotomy between a tyrannical and a just leader existed in the society where the leaders were expected to be courageous, bold and adventurous. We will write a custom essay sample on Bronze Age Mesopotamia Leadership or any similar topic only for you Order Now The importance of the role of religion on leadership cannot be overlooked and religion seemed to mingle with and govern the lives of the leaders. One of the most powerful deductions that can be made about Bronze Age Mesopotamia is the constant struggle between a tyrannical ruler and a just ruler. In fact one can go as far as claiming that the entire document highlights the need for a leader who rules well over his people. In the end of the tale we see Gilgamesh, a tyrannical barbaric ruler, repent by pledging to become someone who loves the people he rules (Kovacs). This shows that perhaps corrupt tyrants who thrived at the expense of the common people marred the Bronze Age Mesopotamia. Similarly another key deduction on leadership is the apparent divine mandate to rule. The Persian Empire is known to have solidified the ‘divine mandate to rule’ and it seems that the Bronze Age Mesopotamia wasn’t too far off from the same notion. In the story we see Gilgamesh as a ‘hero’ mandated by the Gods to rule and after he displeases the Gods we see the birth of another ‘hero’ once again mandated by Gods to challenge Gilgamesh (Kovacs). This intricate relationship between heroes and Gods is something that seems to be a key feature of leadership as no ordinary person could simply become a leader. The Bronze Age Mesopotamian society had somewhat unique expectation from their leaders. The most important expectation dealt with courage and strength, which is to clear from the numerous incidents during the ‘Woe unto Gilgamesh who slandered me and killed the Bull of Heaven! † We see Enikdu and Gilgamesh fight off ‘the bull of heaven’ as well as fight each other with courage, passion and determination. A leader who did not ave the courage to fight and the strength to win was considered no leader at all during the Bronze Age Mesopotamia (Kovacs). Similarly, the leaders were also expected to have a sense of adventure to test out their courage. During the ‘Epic of Gilgamesh’ we see Gilgamesh and Enikdu travel to the dark cedar forest to fight the great monster called Humbaba. There seemed to be no reason for both these leaders to fight this monster but in order to prove their worth and win over the love of their people they had to embark upon this journey and prove their courage as seen in this quote, â€Å"I am Gilgamesh, I killed the Guardian! I destroyed Humbaba who lived in the Cedar Forest†¦ I slew lions in the mountain passes! † (Kovacs) . During the course of the ‘Epic of Gilgamesh’ we also find out about interesting and intricate relationship between Gods and leadership. The Bronze Age Mesopotamian notion of God was very different from our modern notion and God’s often had physical form and interacted with men and other beings. Its clear from the tale that Gods were deeply concerned about who rules and it what manner. As seen in tablet VI, after Gilgamesh rejected Ishtar’s proposal to her father, â€Å"the god of creation, brings about a curse upon the city of Uruk (Kovacs). Even though the Gods do not have complete control over how the leaders behave they seem to be the ones who ultimately decide their fate as is evident from the death Enkidu. The Gods also seem to decide the creation of leaders and their qualities. The leaders can be seen as ‘appointed officials’ and whenever a leader is doing what the Gods would have him do the God’s can create a new one to bring about balance and harmony. To conclude, the ‘Epic of Gilgamesh’, one of the few surviving works of the ancient literature, provides with wonderful insights into the hidden world of leadership in the Bronze Age Mesopotamia. From this tale we find out that the Mesopotamian society had experienced tyrannical rule but at the same time people seemed to have realized a way forward where rulers needed to be just. We also find out that Bronze Age Mesopotamian culture recognized courage, passion and a sense of adventure as important virtues in their leaders. Similarly a lot can be said about the close connection between leaders, Gods and the ultimate power of the Gods over the leaders. Works Cited Kovacs, Maureen. The Epic of Gilgamesh. N. p. , n. d. Web. 14 Sep 2012. http://www. ishtartemple. org/epic. htm. How to cite Bronze Age Mesopotamia Leadership, Essay examples

Christmas Carol Essay Help Example For Students

Christmas Carol Essay Help Version one is based in nineteenth century London. Society is shown to be split into two very different classes, the poor workers and beggars and the rich businessmen. There are many people dressed in ragged clothing that look thin and dirty. However, these people also tend to look cheerful and happy when compared to Scrooge. He is shown wearing black clothing, looking very intimidating. He has a very serious look on his face. This reflects the idea portrayed in both versions that wealth does not give you happiness, in fact, much the opposite. Buildings in London are dirty and old, such as Scrooges office where a window cleaner has to wipe his windows just to look inside. Likewise, in Version two, set in modern day London, the flats that Scrooge rents out to people are also old, dirty, but this filth has been modernised to show graffiti, and with a broken lift. Poverty is shown in both films quite differently, firstly, in version 1, the busy London streets, not only show a thriving community, but also show a high population density with lots of overcrowding. Collectors come  to scrooges office asking for money for the poor and Scrooge bluntly refuses and ignores them. We are told in version 1 that those in poverty end up in sick houses and children work in factories. In version 2, poverty is shown more often but to less serious extent, there is a single mother who cannot pay her rent, and an elderly couple who are trying to save money for a hip replacement operation, and there is a big issue seller outside a pub. Likewise, as in version 1, Scrooge does not care about those in poverty, and he chases off homeless children staying around his flats. Society is more modern in version 2, as we would expect. Marley was coloured, representing a more multi-cultural community. The buildings have changed from old town houses, such as the one Scrooge was living in to modern flats or `vertical villages. In version 1, Scrooge lives in a grand Victorian house, but he keeps it cold and dark, likewise, in version 2, Scrooge lives in a very modern looking flat, but it is also mostly in darkness and coldness. At one point in the film, Scrooge warms his hands up on  a gas cooker. Both films show carol singers around Christmas time, showing a tradition that is present in both societies. In version 2, it becomes apparent that Marley was murdered, this is shown by the police notices and Scrooges dream at the beginning of the film, this shows a higher crime rate and a more murderous modern society. The role of Marley differs greatly between the two productions. In version 1, we are lead to believe that Marley was an equal business partner to Scrooge, and his name on the sign that still hangs outside his office shows this. In this production, the director has remained more loyal to Dickenss script by keeping Marley white, having died by natural causes, showing his funeral and making him appear to Scrooge through a door knocker. In version 2, Marley is coloured, to reflect a more modern, multi-cultural society. Marley had been murdered in version 2, and although we remain unsure of why he was murdered throughout the play, we suspect that scrooge had something to do with it. This is because he seems anxious to get rid of all police posters asking for public help into police enquiries. Marley appears to scrooge through a poster when scrooge is about to burn it. His funeral is not shown in the play, but instead police `can you help notices acknowledge his death Cold weather is more prominent in version 1, at Marleys funeral and in the street scenes, there is crisp white snow covering the streets and rooftops. This effects how we view the different members of society, it makes beggars look poorer and makes Scrooge look more dominant in his long black cape and his cane. Bob Cratchet warms his fingers on candlelight when Scrooge wont let him put any more coal on the fire. .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da , .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da .postImageUrl , .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da , .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da:hover , .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da:visited , .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da:active { border:0!important; } .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da:active , .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u2b43277ede27ca2bd95a9e1d987df9da:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: BUSINESS LOYALTY EssayThroughout the production, both in the church, and Scrooges office it is very dark, the dirty windows do not let much light in. However, out in the streets, everyone else wears lighter, brighter clothing which makes Scrooge look like a shadow as he strolls past. The strong emphasis on the cold, icy and foggy weather in version 1 is a metaphor for the inside of Scrooge, his cold personality is reflected throughout many situations in the film, such as when the charity collectors visit and when Bob Cratchit puts more coal on the fire. Scrooge also appears to have no emotions, when he  asks his nephew why he got married, and when he replies he laughs `Because you fell in love?! When Bob Cratchit asks for Christmas day off to be with his family, Scrooge agrees reluctantly. In the second version, light is more emphasised, at the beginning, we see Christmas lights before the camera pans over to the block of flats that scrooge owns which are very dark and dirty, similar to the scrooges office in version 1. In both versions, scrooge lives in a expensive, and dark home, he makes himself suffer by not lighting his home just to save money.

The American Flag And Its Growing Controversy Essays -

The American Flag And Its Growing Controversy The American Flag and its Growing Controversy Step 1: Details The American flag, to many, is the symbol of life and liberty. Freedom from oppression and the ability to run one's own life with minimal government intervention is what our country fought for all those years ago. The day after the SpanishAmerican War was declared, schools mandated the worship of the flag (Kaminer). So, when the issue of burning our great flag arises, everyone should be against it, right? Well, not exactly. The first amendment of the Constitution states that American citizens have the right to express themselves through free speech. Essentially, burning the American flag is speech without dialogue. Therefore, according to the Constitution, flag desecration is legal. However, flag protectionists are not going to give up that easy. The main controversy surrounding this issue is whether an amendment forbidding flag burning would infringe on our first amendment rights. In 1989, the Supreme Court ruled that flag desecration was protected under our first amendment rights. In 1995, a constitutional amendment that would have given Congress the power to ban flag desecration was introduced to the Senate and the House of Representatives (Kaminer). The amendment passed through the House but failed in the Senate by a mere three votes. In February 1997, a similar amendment was again introduced to the Senate and the House Sell 2 Of Representatives (Kaminer). It also failed, but it does show the growing concern about the issue of flag burning. Protectors of the flag argue that burning an American flag is like spitting in the face of America and its democracy. On the other hand, flag burners argue that under America's democracy, they were given the right to express themselves freely. Obviously, this issue may never be settled with a positive outcome. Some arguments that flag burners have raised in their own defense include such things as having a flag bumper sticker on a car. They believe that if they cannot burn a flag because it is considered desecration, then an old, faded bumper sticker should be considered desecration as well (Apel). This brings up a valid point. Who decides where the line should be drawn between desecration and patriotism? Step 2: Obligations, Ideals, and Consequences As this issue continues to be brought up in our government, the obligations for everyone involved will continue to rise. Congress has the most important obligation of all. They are not only obligated to resolve the issue, but they are also obligated to American citizens in a way that is supposed to be unbiased. On the other hand, citizens are also obligated to understand and respect the government's decision. Not everyone is going to be happy no matter what decision is made, so we as a society are obligated to respect each other's views and morals. Ideals play a very important role in the issue of flag desecration. Ideals serve as the basis for actions. Obviously, social responsibility is an ideal that needs to surface when an issue is dealing with the Constitution. If an amendment is ever added to the Sell 3 Constitution making desecration of the flag illegal, the public has to be ready to deal with it, and follow it. Our government, however, needs to practice the ideal of fairness and integrity when such an issue is brought up. They need to listen to all sides and decide which course of action will contribute to the greater good of the country. After this issue is finally settled, it will be interesting to learn what consequences are adopted for flag burning (considering it becomes illegal). It will also be interesting to find out where the line would be drawn for flag desecration. Who knows? I might be arrested for wearing my flag swimming trunks to the beach. Again, our government has to be prepared to back up their decision, and that includes such consequences as dealing with protestors. Step 3: Possible Courses of Action Coming to a decision on this issue is going to take time. There will be a group, or groups that will feel like they have been cheated. Nevertheless, they need to realize that the government is taking what they feel is the best possible course

I believe we each perceive things differently

I believe we each perceive things differently, and the combination of all our perceptions creates how we view the world, creates our reality. Im not going to pretend to know what reality is, but I know what I think it is, and what I think it should be. Reality should be what each and every one of us wants it to be. There should be no duplicate realities, just like there are no two snowflakes the same. What my reality is should never be the same as what your reality is. For each person has different, albeit special, beliefs. And these beliefs should be what, over the years, shape our reality to what it is. Not what somebody else says is going on, not what everyone else is doing, but what our heart says is real. It should not make a difference in my reality that some guy is running down the street naked. For that one man running down the street will never be able to do anything good for me, or bad against me. Even if a car hits that man my life should not change in anyway. What is in my heart is there, has always been there, and will always be there to hold my reality steadfast. Now I know we have all heard this in advice about the opposite sex over and over again, but for each and every one of us to live our true reality we have to be who we are and act like ourselves every minute of everyday. For to each and every one of us we are what is real and everyone else around us is fake. For us not to do something that we want or for us not to say something that we want to say is taking away from our reality. Every time we take away from our reality we take part of our special little contribution to this world away. Each one of us expects people to be real to them so why should we lie to others and not be real to them and ourselves. I see reality in this light because; I find it hard to believe that I have the same reality as the serial killer down the street. When he goes on television and says he killed all of those people bec...

DV - An Integrated Approach Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5750 words

DV - An Integrated Approach - Essay Example Availability and access to information, shelter, medical care, education, and other support services is essential in empowering women to rebuild their lives. In essence an integrated approach represents a cohesive structure that relies on the principle of a public health model focusing on prevention, intervention and cooperation by key partners across all levels. The main objective of the research seeks to investigate and critically analyse the issue of domestic violence. The study would begin by establishing the lessons that can be learnt in relation to the issue of domestic abuse. The researcher would also highlight about the extent, nature and impact of domestic abuse. The writer would develop the argument on the premise that an integrated approach in coping with the problem of domestic abuse represents a consolidated comprehensive framework that relies on the principle of a public health model and this would be done in three stages in particular. The first stage would focus on prevention of domestic abuse against women instead of dealing with the consequences. The core element of prevention is elimination of gender-based attitudes, stereotypes and behaviours. Secondly, the essence of an integrated approach is broad-based which involves programmes and interventions through a wide range of levels and sectors from family to major international organisations. This stage would try to investigate how these various sectors can be integrated in attempting to formulate a lasting solution to the problem of domestic violence. Thirdly, the study would investigate how the key notion underlying an integrated approach that the key partners must closely cooperate within and across the levels could be a viable solution to this problem. In recent years, the contentious topic of domestic violence has come to occupy an increasingly

Pollution Monitoring and Control Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6250 words

Pollution Monitoring and Control - Essay Example There are various sources of freshwater across the world, however these resources are in danger of being exploited and mismanaged not only due to human error, but also because of ecological degradation. The primary sources of pollution in freshwater is associated to untreated wastes being discharged irresponsibly, companies dumping industrial effluents, as well as the by-product of the run-off produced by agricultural areas. The causes continues to increase due to the societal urbanization and the growth of industries, which brings about the utilization of synthetic organic substances that cause considerable effects on sources of freshwater bodies (Hogan, 2010). It has been well known that countries that are developed are those who experience the issue of chemical discharges integrated in their water sources, whereas developing nations come across water pollution due to agricultural by products. Such concerns then affect the health of the people as there are chemicals and substances in drinking water, which leads to illnesses (Schueler, 2000). Water Pollution Water pollution entails any modification in the quality of water as adversely impacted by any organism or substance. There are various types of water pollutants and there are those that are fatal when consumed. Pollution varies, although the common organism that affects the health of humans is attributed to pathogenic organisms. Such organisms roots from human wastes that are not treated appropriately. Two forms of water pollution can be differentiated based on its source, the point and non-point sources (Biswas, 2008). Point sources are water pollutants that are derived from singular dump site of plants, companies and factories. This type of source is considered easier to monitor due to the designated sites wherein the wastes are dumped, which makes the types of pollutants under point sources easier to regulate. On the other hand, non-point sources are those that are produced in a scattered manner based from various areas or runoff from agricultural fields. The latter is harder to regulate because there is no designated area to monitor or regulate (EPA, 2006). Human Health and Water-borne Diseases Water-borne illnesses are those that are acquired through consuming contaminated water. Major ity of these illnesses are infectious and are caused by human waste, while others are due to chemicals that serve as contaminants. Illnesses caused by pathogens are more prevalent in developing countries as caused by poor sanitary practices. These organisms are integrated in water sources, which becomes in direct contact to individuals ingesting food and water. On the other hand, chemicals that contaminate water are naturally in land, but come into contact with water due to human activity (Nwachcuku & Gerba, 2004). The researcher will expound on 1) pathogens and 2) chemicals, as water pollutants that affect the health of humans. Pathogens One of the most common types of water pollutants are pathogens. Pathogens usually take the form of bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms. These are derived from human and animal wastes, which cause water-borne illnesses. The integration of these pathogens in water is dangerous to human beings, as ingestion of contaminated water would be d etrimental to the consumer’s health (Marechal, Ahmad, Engerrand, Galeazzi, & Touchard, 2006). Not only does it induce symptoms that negatively impact the patient’s over all well-being, but it also progresses to illnesses that can cause permanent damage to the individual’s internal organs. There are also instances that such diseases can lead to death (Biswas, Tortajada, Braga, & Rodriguez, 2006). The highest probability of ingesting water with microbes are those

Future Scope of Image Processing

Future Scope of Image Processing Imaging can be defined as the representation of an objects external form. That definition no longer holds true. More information within an image can be considered. Fluorescent tags, mechanical-biological parameters, internal structures are some of the recent additions. Fabrication while imaging and the characterization of materials as yet undefined can also be part of imaging. The extremely small images can be measured in nanometers also. Future imaging systems are expected to be less expensive. They will have to be easier to use. There are various types of imaging systems such as those used for chemical, optical, thermal, medical and molecular imaging. The use of scanning techniques and statistical analyses for image analysis are needed to extract valid image values. The satellite applications programs of the future will be based on extensive research in the area of imaging. A number of different sensors will be used in the satellites orbiting the earth. Scientifically useful inform ation will be extracted from these systems. New techniques will be needed to organize and classify the different sets of data obtainable from the orbiting satellites. The future trend in remote sensing will be based on sensors that can record the same scene in many different ways. Graphics data will be important in image processing app1ications. Satellite based imaging for planetary exploration as well as military applications will be the future trend. Biomedical applications, astronomy, and scene analysis for the robotic vehicles are also pertinent areas of future applications of imaging4. Adaptive search of large image data bases will become the norms, since video and graphics data will be available from a variety of sensors developed for remote sensing applications of satellite systems. The design and coordination of microscopy imaging techniques for research in molecular biology is gaining importance. KEY WORDS: future paradigm for imaging techniques, cellular neural network for imaging techniques, Advances in image processing and artificial intelligence, improved sensors for satellite imaging, ultrasound imaging, digital image processing, document and medical imaging, remote sensing. INTRODUCTION The advances taking place in broadband wireless devices and in mobile technology used for hand-held devices have several applications in the field of image processing. Internet enables acquisition of instant information. Most of this information is designed for visual consumption in the form of text, graphics, and pictures, or integrated multimedia presentations. Image processing essentially means algorithmic enhancement, manipulation, or analysis (also understanding or recognition) of the digital image data. Image processing can be thought of a form of signal processing for which the input is an image, such as photographs or frames of video. The output of image processing can be either an image or a set of characteristics or parameters related to the image. Most image-processing techniques involve treating the image as a two-dimensional signal and applying standard signal-processing techniques to it. The acquisition of images is referred to as imaging. Image Processing deals with im ages which are two-dimensional entities (such as scanned office documents, x-ray films, satellite pictures, etc) captured electronically. The technique of video image processing used to solve problems associated with the real-time road traffic control systems is gaining importance. This has a direct emphasis on the future improvements planned for digital video camera techniques. The nuances of Image Processing and the range of applications in which the technology will be deployed in the future will be of value for planning in this vital area. Image Processing is considered to be one of the most rapidly evolving areas of information technology today, with growing applications in all areas of business. This technology holds the possibility of developing the ultimate machine in the future that would be able to perform the visual functions of human beings. The basis for all kinds of future visual automation is relevant to image processing field. Sophisticated optical sorting systems use image processing to discriminate the colors of an object, thereby visually sorting a product though the use of light sensors. Augmented reality5,7 is a term used for a live direct or indirect view of a physical real-world environment whose elements are merged with (or augmented by) virtual computer-generated imagery, thus creating a mixed reality. The augmentation is conventionally in real-time, such as sports scores on TV during a match. Augmented reality research explores the application of computer-generated imagery in live video streams as a way to expand the real-world. Advanced research includes use of head-mounted displays and virtual retinal displays for visualization purposes, and construction of controlled environments containing any number of sensors and actuators Traffic data collection under mixed traffic conditions is one of the major problems faced by researchers as well as traffic regulatory authorities. There is a growing demand for road traffic data of all kinds. Increasing congestion problems and problems associated with existing detectors created an interest in such new vehicle detection technologies1. But the systems have difficulties with congestion, shadows and lighting transitions. Problems related to image processing application to road traffic are due to the fact that real world images are to be processed in real time. Every image processing technique or algorithm takes an input, an image or a sequence of images and produces an output, which may be a modified image and/or a description of the input image contents. Image Processing extracts information from images and integrates it for several applications. There are several fields in which image processing applications are relevant. Medical imaging, industrial applications, remote sensing, space applications, and military applications are a few examples. IMAGING IN INDUSTRY The applications in industry include fingerprint or retina recognition, processing records of security or traffic cameras. The applications in medicine include ultrasound imaging, magnetic resonance. Stereography is the art of using two almost identical photographs to create a three-dimensional (3D) image. The viewer requires special glasses or a stereoscope to see the 3D image. With modern technology, it has applications in motion picture and television industry. Stereography is a complicated process. Modern stereography uses specialized computer software and camera hardware. Volumetric displays do not require special goggles. The three-dimensional graphics created by this type of display can be viewed from any angle. Each viewer can observe the picture from a different perspective. To create volumetric graphics, a technique called as swept surface volumetric display, which is based on persistence of vision is adopted. Here use of fast-moving lit surfaces creates the illusion of a s olid shape. To display volumetric 3D images there is another option which is called as static volume. No moving parts are used in the visible area of the display. However mirrors and lenses are used to direct a beam of laser light. Very fast pulses of laser light are directed at different points in the air. Persistence of vision gives the illusion of a single solid object. This method is useful for medical diagnosis. A 3D display can show a realistic image of a heart. Architects and builders can visualize a construction project in three dimensions. Future applications include methods of interacting with volumetric displays. Sensors can be used by users to manipulate and adjust the graphics. A camera connected to a display can track an athleteà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s motions and rotate the images as needed. These types of volumetric interactions can aid in literally reaching out and touching the three dimensional images of kith and kin separated geographically. Bio-medical and other applications2 are possible, wherein model building and rendering can convert 2D image to a 3D image by using the mesh skeleton of a component or an organ. Use of 3D image processing to build realistic models for movies and buildings will also become a reality. 3D image processing requires a mesh object. An image processing program helps in creating lines to build up the mesh skeleton. 3D scanner can also be used to capture the information. The mesh skeleton contains volume and depth information so that a 3D model can be developed. Rendering is used to include colors and textures over the 3D model to make it look realistic. The computer can make use of different 2D screenshots to capture every angle of the model. The user can move the model and it will appear as a 3D image. 3D imaging is a process to render a three-dimensional image on a two-dimensional surface by creating the optical illusion of depth. 3D imaging makes use of two still or motion camera lenses a slight distance apart to photograph a three-dimensional object. The process effectively duplicates the stereoscopic vision of human eyes. The image is reproduced as two flat images that are seen separately, creating a visual illusion of depth. The spot where the left and right images overlap is the point of convergence. As objects in 3D imaging move further from the point of convergence, they appear either closer or further away from the viewer, creating the illusion of depth. Face detection is a computer technology that determines the locations and sizes of human faces in arbitrary (digital) images. It detects facial features and ignores anything else, such as buildings, trees and bodies. Early face-detection algorithms focused on the detection of frontal human faces, whereas newer algorithms attempt to solve the more general and difficult problem of multi-view face detection. It is also used in video surveillance. Some recent digital cameras use face detection for autofocus. The concept of feature detection refers to methods that aim at computing abstractions of image information and making local decisions at every image point whether there is an image feature of a given type at that point or not. Features are used as a starting point for many computer vision algorithms. The desirable property for a feature detector is repeatability. Whether or not the same feature will be detected in two or more different images of the same scene is going to be important. Morphological image processing consists of a set of operators that transform images according to certain characterizations. Mathematical morphology is the field of acquisition and processing of image information starting with simple image modifications using point transforms or linear filters and ending up with sophisticated tools and techniques for the analysis and processing of geometrical structures, based on set theory, lattice theory, topology, and random functions. This area also covers the use of digital image processing techniques to process, analyze and present images obtained from a microscope. Such processing is now commonplace in a number of diverse fields such as medicine, biological research, cancer research, drug testing, metallurgy, etc. A number of manufacturers of microscopes now specifically design the features that allow the microscopes to interface to an image processing system. CONCLUSION A major challenge for automatic image analysis is that the sheer complexity of the visual task which has been mostly ignored by the current approaches. New technological breakthrough in the areas of digital computation and telecommunication has relevance for future applications of image processing1. The satellite imaging and remote sensing applications programs of the future will feature a variety of sensors orbiting the earth. This technology is required for military and other types of surveillance, statistical data collection in the fields of forestry, agriculture, disaster prediction, weather prediction. In order to extract scientifically useful information, it will be necessary to develop techniques to register real-time data recorded by a variety of sensors for various applications3. FUTURE SCOPE The future of image processing will involve scanning the heavens for other intelligent life out in space. Also new intelligent, digital species created entirely by research scientists in various nations of the world will include advances in image processing applications. Due to advances in image processing and related technologies there will be millions and millions of robots in the world in a few decades time, transforming the way the world is managed. Advances in image processing and artificial intelligence6 will involve spoken commands, anticipating the information requirements of governments, translating languages, recognizing and tracking people and things, diagnosing medical conditions, performing surgery, reprogramming defects in human DNA, and automatic driving all forms of transport. With increasing power and sophistication of modern computing, the concept of computation can go beyond the present limits and in future, image processing technology will advance and the visual s ystem of man can be replicated. The future trend in remote sensing will be towards improved sensors that record the same scene in many spectral channels. Graphics data is becoming increasingly important in image processing app1ications. The future image processing applications of satellite based imaging ranges from planetary exploration to surveillance applications. Using large scale homogeneous cellular arrays of simple circuits to perform image processing tasks and to demonstrate pattern-forming phenomena is an emerging topic. The cellular neural network is an implementable alternative to fully connected neural networks and has evolved into a paradigm for future imaging techniques. The usefulness of this technique has applications in the areas of silicon retina, pattern formation, etc.

Education System Comparison Between Usa and Latvia Essay

Introduction Everyone knows that in nowadays there are many possibilities and ways to learn, but in Latvia this is very topical theme right now. Many of the high school graduates want to learn abroad. And I do not think that this is good, because like about half of the students or people that go to learn abroad, never comes back to the native country. That is why I have chosen this topical theme. I am going to study educational systems in these countries. I am going to poll some of the 12th grade students about what are they thinking about learning in USA. I want to achieve that kind of position when a student reads my research project and especially the higher education in Latvia part he changes his mind and stays to learn here. My hypothesis for this Research Work is – the education systems in Latvia and in the USA are different and this is a reason why people in Latvia choose the USA for studies very often. The Aim of the Research Work is to compare the education systems in the USA and in Latvia and to find out middle school students opinion about studies in Latvia and in the USA. The main objectives of the Research Work are: †¢ To collect the information about educational system in Latvia †¢ To collect the information about educational system in the USA †¢ To make a questionnaire and analyze the results of middle school students opinion about studies in Latvia and in the USA Educational system in USA Education in the United States is provided mainly by government, with control and funding coming from three levels: federal, state, and local. School attendance is mandatory and nearly universal at the primary and secondary levels. At these levels, school curricula, funding, teaching, and other policies are set through locally elected school boards with jurisdiction over school districts. School districts are usually separate from other local jurisdictions, with independent officials and budgets. Educational standards and standardized testing decisions are usually made by state governments. The age for compulsory education vary by state, beginning at the age five to eight and ending at the age of fourteen to eighteen. A growing number of states are now requiring school attendance until the age of 18.[6] 1.1 Preschool There are no mandatory public prekindergarten or crà ¨che programs in the United States. The federal government funds the preschool program for children of low-income families, but most families are on their own with regard to finding a preschool or childcare. In the large cities, there are sometimes upper-class preschools catering to the children of the wealthy.[6] 1.2 Elementary and Secondary Education Schooling is compulsory for all children in the United States, but the age range for which school attendance is required varies from state to state. Most children begin elementary education with kindergarten (usually five to six years old) and finish secondary education with twelfth grade (usually eighteen years old). In some cases, pupils may be promoted beyond the next regular grade. Some states allow students to leave school at the age of 14–17 with parental permission, before finishing high school. Most parents send their children to either a public or private institution. According to government data, one-tenth of students are enrolled in private schools. Approximately 85% of students enter the public schools, largely because they are â€Å"free† (tax burdens by school districts vary from area to area). Most students attend school for around six hours per day, and usually anywhere from 175 to 185 days per year. Most schools have a summer break period for about two and half months from June through August. This break is much longer than in many other nations. Originally, â€Å"summer vacation,† as it is colloquially called, allowed students to participate in the harvest period during the summer. However, this remains largely by tradition.[6] Parents may also choose to educate their own children at home; 1.7% of children are educated in this manner. 1.2.1 Junior high school Junior high school is any school intermediate between elementary school and high school. It usually includes seventh and eighth grade, and sometimes sixth or ninth grade. In some locations, junior high school includes ninth grade only, allowing students to adjust to a high school environment. Middle school is often used instead of junior high school when demographic factors increase the number of younger students. At this time, students are given more independence as choosing their own classes. Usually, starting in ninth grade, grades become part of a student’s official transcript. Future employers or colleges may want to see steady improvement in grades and a good attendance record on the official transcript. Therefore, students are encouraged to take much more responsibility for their education.[6] 1.3 Higher education Post-secondary education in the United States is known as college or university and commonly consists of four years of study at an institution of higher learning. There are 4,352* colleges, universities, and junior colleges in the USA. Students traditionally apply to receive admission into college, with varying difficulties of entrance. Schools differ in their competitiveness and reputation; generally, the most prestigious schools are private, rather than public. Admissions criteria involve the rigor and grades earned in high school courses taken, class ranking, and standardized test. Most colleges also consider more subjective factors such as a commitment to extracurricular activities, a personal essay, and an interview. While numerical factors rarely ever are absolute required values, each college usually has a rough threshold below which admission is unlikely.[2] *- January 2009. data from www.ed.gov Once admitted, students engage in undergraduate study, which consists of satisfying university and class requirements to achieve a bachelor’s degree in a field of concentration known as a major. The most common method consists of four years of study leading to a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), a Bachelor of Science (B.S.), or sometimes another bachelor’s degree such as Bachelor of Fine Arts (B.F.A.), Bachelor of Social Work (B.S.W.), Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng.,) or Bachelor of Philosophy (B.Phil.) Five-Year Professional Architecture programs offer the Bachelor of Architecture Degree (B.Arch.) Professional degrees such as law, medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry, are offered as graduate study after earning at least three years of undergraduate schooling or after earning a bachelor’s degree depending on the program. These professional fields do not require a specific undergraduate major, though medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry have set prerequisite courses that must be taken before enrollment.[2] Some students choose to attend a community college for two years prior to further study at another college or university. In most states, community colleges are operated either by a division of the state university or by local special districts subject to guidance from a state agency. Community colleges may award Associate of Arts (AA) or Associate of Science (AS) degree after two years. Those seeking to continue their education may transfer to a four-year college or university. Some community colleges have automatic enrollment agreements with a local four-year college, where the community college provides the first two years of study and the university provides the remaining years of study, sometimes all on one campus. The community college awards the associate’s degree, and the university awards the bachelor’s and master’s degrees. Graduate study, conducted after obtaining an initial degree and sometimes after several years of professional work, leads to a more advanced degree such as a master’s degree, which could be a Master of Arts (MA), Master of Science (MS), Master of Business Administration (MBA), or other less common master’s degrees such as Master of Education (MEd), and Master of Fine Arts (MFA). After additional years of study and sometimes in conjunction with the completion of a master’s degree, students may earn a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) or other doctoral degree, such as Doctor of Arts, Doctor of Education, Doctor of Theology, Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Pharmacy, Doctor of Physical Therapy, or Doctor of Jurisprudence. Some programs, such as medicine, have formal apprenticeship procedures post-graduation like residency and internship wh ich must be completed after graduation and before one is considered to be fully trained. Other professional programs like law and business have no formal apprenticeship requirements after graduation.[3] Entrance into graduate programs usually depends upon a student’s undergraduate academic performance or professional experience as well as their score on a standardized entrance exam. Many graduate and law schools do not require experience after earning a bachelor’s degree to enter their programs; however, business school candidates are usually required to gain a few years of professional work experience before applying. Only 8.9 % of students ever receive postgraduate degrees, and most, after obtaining their bachelor’s degree, proceed directly into the workforce.[7] 1.4 Basic Curricular Structure Generally, at the high school level, students take a broad variety of classes without special emphasis in any particular subject. Curricula vary widely in quality and rigidity. The following subjects are fairly universally required in the United States: †¢ Science (usually two years minimum, normally biology, chemistry and physics) †¢ Mathematics (usually two years minimum, normally including algebra, geometry, algebra II, and/or trigonometry) †¢ English (usually four years minimum, including literature, humanities, etc.) †¢ Social Science (usually three years minimum, including various history, government/economics courses) †¢ Physical education (at least one year) Many states require a â€Å"health† course in which students learn about anatomy, nutrition, first aid, sexuality, and birth control. Anti-drug use programs are also usually part of health courses. In many cases, however, options are provided for students to â€Å"test out† or perform independent study in order to complete this requirement. Foreign language and some form of art education are also a mandatory part of the curriculum in some schools.[6] 1.5 Extracurricular activities A major characteristic of American schools is the high priority given to sports, clubs and activities by the community, the parents, the schools and the students themselves. Extracurricular activities are educational activities not falling within the scope of the regular curriculum but under the supervision of the school. These activities can extend to large amounts of time outside the normal school day; home-schooled students, however, are not normally allowed to participate. Student participation in sports programs, drill teams, bands, and spirit groups can amount to hours of practices and performances. Most states have organizations which develop rules for competition between groups. These organizations are usually forced to implement time limits on hours practiced as a prerequisite for participation. Many schools also have non-varsity sports teams, however these are usually afforded less resources and attention. The idea of having sports teams associated with high schools is relatively unique to the United States in comparison with other countries. Sports programs and their related games, especially football and/or basketball, are major events for American students and for larger schools can be a major source of funds for school districts. High school athletic competitions often generate intense interest in the community. Inner city schools serving poor students are heavily scouted by college and even professional coaches, with national attention given to which colleges outstanding high school students choose to attend. State high school championship tournaments football and basketball attract high levels of public interest. In addition to sports, numerous non-athletic extracurricular activities are available in American schools, both public and private. Activities include musical groups, marching bands, student government, school newspapers, science fairs, debate teams, and clubs focused on an academic area or cultural interests.[5] 1.6 Electives Many high schools offer a wide variety of elective courses, although the availability of such courses depends upon each particular school’s financial resources and desired curriculum emphases. Common types of electives include: †¢ Visual arts (drawing, sculpture, painting, photography, film) †¢ Performing arts (drama, band, chorus, orchestra, dance) †¢ Technology education (woodworking, metalworking, automobile repair, robotics) †¢ Computers (word processing, programming, graphic design) †¢ Athletics (cross country, football, baseball, basketball, track and field, swimming, tennis, gymnastics, water polo, soccer, wrestling, cheerleading, volleyball, lacrosse, ice hockey, field hockey, boxing, skiing/snowboarding) †¢ Publishing (journalism/student newspaper, yearbook/annual, literary magazine) †¢ Foreign languages (Spanish, French are common; Chinese, Latin, Greek, German, Italian, Arabic, and Japanese are less common)[5] 1.7 Advanced Courses Many high schools provide Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) courses. These are special forms of honours classes where the curriculum is more challenging and lessons more aggressively paced than standard courses. AP or IB courses are usually taken during the 11th or 12th grade of high school.[6] 1.8 Home Schooling There was 1,3 million children that were home schooled in 2008, up 74% from 1999 when the US Department of Education first started keeping statistics. This was 2.9% of all children. Parents select moral or religious reasons for home schooling their children.[1] 1.9 School grades As you can see in the table (Table N.1), in the U.S. the first year of compulsory schooling begins with children at the age of five or six. Children are then placed in year groups known as grades, beginning with first grade and culminating in twelfth grade. Typical ages and grade groupings in public and private schools may be found through the U.S. Department of Education. Many different variations exist across the country.[2] For more foreseen scheme of education in USA see Appendix N.1. 1.10 Grading scale In schools in the United States children are continually assessed throughout the school year by their teachers, and report cards are issued to parents at varying intervals. Generally the scores for individual assignments and tests are recorded for each student in a grade book, along with the maximum number of points for each assignment. At any time, the total number of points for a student when divided by the total number of possible points produces a percent grade which can be translated to a letter grade. Letter grades are often used on report cards at the end of a marking period, although the current grade may be available at other times. Although grading scales usually differ from school to school, the grade scale which seems to be most common is as follows. The grading is based on a scale of 0-100 or a percentile. Note that in some jurisdictions the â€Å"D† grade (or that below 70) is considered a failing grade. In other jurisdictions a â€Å"D† grade is considere d passing in certain classes, and failing in others. If you need a concept of grading scale, see Table N.2.[6] Table N.2 Example grading scale in USA |E,N,U or F |D |C |B |A | | |- | |+ |- | |arodpamatskola |vocational basic school |9-year education may be |2 |no | | | |incomplete | | | |arodvidusskola |vocational secondary school|9-year education |3 |no | |arodgimnazija |vocational gymnasium |9-year education |4 |yes | |arodskola |vocational school |general secondary education |1-2 |no | | |(postsecondary) | | | | As it is seen from table (Table N.4), just one type of vocational schools – four year vocational gymnasium – concurrently to vocational training provide general secondary education and, consequently, access to higher education.[10] 2.8 Access to Higher Education In principle, access to higher education is general for all holders of general secondary education certificates. However, the institutions of higher education are free to determine which of the elective subjects must have been taken by the applicant at the secondary school in order to become eligible for admission to a chosen program. There are no fixed all-Latvian rules determining the admission system and it may differ between different institutions and even between different faculties of the same institution of higher education. The main forms of admission procedure may be as follows: †¢ 1 to 4 competitive entrance examinations; †¢ a competition of diplomas plus an interview by the Admission board, which may include general questions in subjects important to the chosen specialty; †¢ just a competition of diplomas (usually judging by the marks in subjects important to the chosen program and/or average mark in the secondary school certificate); †¢ knowledge of Latvian language is evaluated in these cases when the applicant has not had Latvian as the language of instruction in secondary school. An admission board consisting of staff members is formed in all higher educational institutions to carry out admission procedures in accordance with conditions announced at least 5 months before.[9] 2.9 Higher Education 2.9.1 Academic higher education (AkadÄ“miskÄ  augstÄ kÄ  izglÄ «tÄ «ba) is understood as a general higher education based upon fundamental and/or applied science. Academic education can be (and in most cases is) divided into two stages. A student has to perform a thesis of a Research Work at the end of each stage. I. First degree An academic degree and a Bachelor diploma (Bakalaura grÄ ds) can be awarded after successive completion of the first stage. Bachelor degree is an intermediate degree and can be treated as a completed higher education only in these cases when duration of program is 4+ years. However, part of the students leave universities having a bachelor`s degree and find their gap in the labor market. II. Second degree Academic master degree (MaÄ £istra grÄ ds) and the appropriate diploma is awarded after the second stage of academic education and should be treated as a complete university-type higher education. Master degree or a degree equivalent to it (e.g. medical studies are of a level of master`s degree but name of master`s degree is not applicable) can be awarded after total duration of 5-7 years of university studies. Master degree (or equivalent) is required for admission to doctoral studies. III. Higher degrees There are two of doctoral degrees in Latvia Degree of Ph.D. (Doktora grÄ ds) Holders of master`s degree are eligible for doctoral studies and the holders of Ph.D. is expected to be achieved in a 3-4 year period of full-time doctoral studies after a public defense of doctoral thesis. After defense of habilitation thesis you are awarded with a degree of habilitated doctor (habilitÄ“ts doktors). Doctoral degrees are awarded by specialized councils: †¢ promotion council (promocijas padome) – awarding the degree doktors only †¢ habilitation council (habilitÄ cijas padome) – awarding both doctoral degrees. The regulations for awarding of doctoral degrees are set and the promotion and habilitation councils are appointed by Latvian Science Council (Latvijas ZinÄ tnes Padome). 2.9.2 Higher professional education (ProfesionÄ la augstakÄ  izglÄ «tÄ «ba) is a higher education based upon applied science. It provides knowledge and skills for professional activities. Acquirement of the programs of professional studies can take place independently of academic studies, concurrently to or after them. Non-university type higher education institutions offer higher professional education programs leading directly to professional qualifications. To be treated as a completed higher education, the duration of professional studies has to be not less than 4 years. University-type higher education institutions may offer 1-2 year programs leading to professional qualification after achieving bachelor degree (bakalaurs).[8]